I expect there is such a treaty, but presumably it specifies that the Netherlands will have certain obligations regarding US citizens that reside in the Netherlands. I doubt it will be specific on who actually is a US citizen.

Further, you might still be able to prevail in a court. You would essentially be asking a court to find that you have a unilateral right to renounce a citizenship. Again, I doubt such a right is explicitly set out in any Netherlands law, but you would would be arguing that such a right is implied by some other principles. If the court were to find in your favor, the fact that the Netherlands has a treaty to the contrary would merely mean that the treaty was now incompatible with Dutch law.

The obligations are not owed to the Dutch, and I find extremely unlikely that the tax treaty includes language which says "the fee for renouncing citizenship, if unpaid, shall be paid to the Dutch". In the outlined scenario, no taxes are owed. What is not paid is the fee for renoucning, and what has not been done is filing the paperwork. So the question is whether the tax treaty covers this, and whether or not a Dutch court would try to act on behalf of the US government regarding these matters.

It depends on the treaty, many are like you say, but not all include mutual collection/enforcement of tax debts.