http://goto.ucsd.edu/~rjhala/liquid/haskell/blog/about/
The core idea here is called the Refinement Type which is basically what you're looking for. In order to power this type system Liquid Haskell depends on a full SMT solver, though, which is a rather large hammer to wield.
As it regards to Peano arithmetic in DT languages the Peano naturals data type is awkward for doing math... but FANTASTIC for defining the properties of recursion and induction. Indeed, what you find is that the Peano nats show up everywhere as being a stable foundation for complex proofs and smart recursive functions.
It's a very similar feature to Haskell's lists. Competent Haskell programers do not use lists when they want arrays or vectors—the latter types are naturally far more convenient when in their application space. But lists are not abolished! They're fantastically useful as control structures indicating sequential recursion.
Typically you think of data types as forming their meaning through construction. You use numbers by constructing them according to arithmetic properties. Another way to do it, though, especially with recursive ADTs and inductive families, is to think of a type's meaning as being derived from how you break it down.
The canonical way to break down a list is to find some way of combining the head of the list with the broken-down version of the tail of the list. In Haskell that is called foldr
-- combiner zero list result
foldr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b
let ls = Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 Nil)))
foldr comb zero ls =
comb 1 (comb 2 (comb 3 zero)))
The thing that bothers me about implementing these constraints the Haskell or Idris way (or in any other DT language I've encountered) is that it feels a lot like template metaprogramming in C++. Define integers with nested types as Zero and the sequence of successors (data Nat = Z | S Nat) seems a lot like defining integers with the Peano axioms using nested C++ templates - possible, even neat, but a bit crazy. Maybe that feeling goes away when you're more familiar with the languages.
Btw. I've just found out that Spec# (an extension of C#) almost has what I described... you can define preconditions and invariants that are checked at least at runtime, but a static checker tries to proove as much as possible at compile time. Its a pity it is no longer developed, this could have been the static type checked language for the rest of us: