Google Books was a wildly distinct use, though. There’s plenty of support in copyright law for fair use claims around indexing and excerpting for such purposes.

As for economic damages, that seems easy: One obvious use of the model is to create derivative works that could economically compete with the original creators’ works.

Simpler examples make this clear: I love Disney animated films. I love them so much I build a model & train it on the complete corpus of Disney animated films. My model is a success, and can produce new films which more or less echo the style, characters, themes of the Disney films.

This is not what Google was doing. The creative work was the well-organized, efficient index, not new books.