> Systems or no systems, you almost never want to pass a number by reference

It does occur for generic reference-based API though (e.g. many iterators)

And you'd want to know whether you're passing a string or a vector by reference of value though, especially with affine types.

Why would you ever want to copy a string when passing it into a function?

Note that "pass by value" isn't a copy in a language with affine types like Rust.

I'm not sure passing everything by reference probably would gain much in a systems programming language in the vein of Rust: one would still need some syntactic method to distinguish between shared ("immutable") and non-shared ("mutable") references. Also, Rust-style static reasoning cares about things actually being pointers, to allow returning references safely. Lastly, being able to move things around is important too, it is a major part in Rust creating zero-overhead abstractions.

I'm not sure exactly how MLKit works, but I glanced over https://github.com/melsman/mlkit/blob/master/doc/mlkit.pdf and it seems to me that its regions are somewhat less static and that it doesn't attempt to handle concurrency. I could be wrong on both counts!

I think you could have mut visible at the language level, but otherwise have all parameter passing look and feel like Java, without any pointer noise or implicit copying.

How would lifetimes work? Java & al get away with it because they don't reify lifetimes and the concepts of reference and value are moved at the type level (and they don't use affine types).

From looking at research languages with similar systems (Mezzo, LinearML...) none of them seem to have pointer noise. I might be missing something though.

In Rust, passing a string by value is a move, and it won't copy the backing buffer at most it copies the stack structure (24 bytes) and possibly not even that (depending on the way it's used).

As to why, well because the function asks for it, either because it generically works on values, or because it consumes the string to avoid copying its internal buffer (e.g. https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/string/struct.String.html#meth...), or whatever other reason. Either way that's a completely valid use.