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skeptical_dog

The english word, too, is derived from the Latin for lead: plumbum.
The cost to the issuer is proportional to the size of the purchase in the case of credit default or fraud. So a fixed fee does not make sense for loans. This isn't the case for the App Store.

BTW, Visa/MasterCard don't manage risk afaik -- the card issuing banks do that. Visa just connects the pos terminal etc to the right bank.